Islam, like many world religions, encompasses a wide variety of interpretations, beliefs, and practices. Over the centuries, these variations have developed into distinct sects, each with its theological foundations and cultural expressions. While all Muslims believe in the oneness of God, the finality of the Prophet Muhammad, and the sacredness of the Quran, they differ on issues such as leadership succession, jurisprudence, and the role of spiritual authority. The major sects in Islam include Sunni, Shia, Ibadi, Ahmadiyya, and the mystical dimension known as Sufism. Each has developed its ideological framework and geographical or institutional centers of influence.
Sunni Islam is the most widely followed branch of Islam, comprising around 85–90% of the global Muslim population. Sunnis believe that after the Prophet Muhammad’s death, leadership should have passed to Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s close companion, rather than to his cousin and son-in-law, Ali. This succession formed the basis of the Sunni belief in the caliphate, where leaders are chosen based on consensus and merit rather than lineage. Sunni jurisprudence is derived from four major schools of law: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafiq, and Hanbali. These schools interpret Islamic law slightly differently but remain united under core Sunni beliefs. Sunni theology emphasizes the collective understanding of the early Muslim community and the consensus (ijma) of scholars. The spiritual and intellectual heart of Sunni Islam is Al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt, founded over a thousand years ago. Al-Azhar remains one of the most authoritative centers for Sunni scholarship and issues religious guidance that is respected across the Muslim world. While Sunni Islam as a whole strongly condemns terrorism, radical interpretations, particularly among extremist Salafi and Wahhabi movements, have led to the rise of groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda. These fringe elements have been widely discredited by mainstream Sunni scholars who continue to advocate peace, justice, and coexistence.
Shia Islam accounts for about 10–15% of the world’s Muslims and centers around the belief that leadership should have remained within the Prophet’s family, specifically passing to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his descendants. Shias believe that the Imams, beginning with Ali, were divinely appointed to lead the Muslim community both spiritually and politically. The largest branch of Shia Islam is the Twelver sect, which believes in a succession of twelve Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be in occultation and will return as the Mahdi, or guided one, to establish justice. Qom in Iran and Najaf in Iraq are the two major centers of Twelver Shia scholarship and theology. Qom houses the largest Shia seminary and serves as a hub for religious training and jurisprudence, while Najaf is home to the shrine of Imam Ali and a significant seminary. Other branches of Shia Islam include the Ismailis, who follow a living Imam—currently Prince Karim Aga Khan IV. The administrative headquarters of the Ismaili community is based in Geneva, Switzerland, where the Aga Khan Development Network is also located. While the Ismailis are widely spread across the globe, their religious authority is centered under the guidance of the Aga Khan.
The Zaidi Shias, mainly found in Yemen, have their historical base in Saadat, a city that has served as a center for Zaidi thought and political activity. Unlike Twelvers and Ismailis, Zaidis have a more flexible approach to the Imamate and a legal tradition closer to Sunnism.
Shia Islam, like Sunni Islam, condemns terrorism. However, certain groups, such as Hezbollah, which identify with Twelver Shia Islam, have been involved in armed resistance and regional conflicts. These activities are politically complex and do not reflect the core Shia teachings, which emphasize justice, martyrdom, and resistance to tyranny rather than indiscriminate violence.
Ibadi Islam is a lesser-known but historically significant sect that evolved from the early Kharijite movement. Today, it is most prominently practiced in Oman, where it is the state religion. The capital city, Muscat, serves as the political and religious center for Ibadi Islam. Ibadis emphasize simplicity, community consensus, and justice. They reject extremism and believe that leadership should be based on merit and piety, not lineage. Ibadis are known for their moderate views, tolerance, and avoidance of sectarian conflict. Unlike some other Islamic sects, Ibadis have remained largely uninvolved in modern-day political violence or terrorism. Their teachings and practices reflect a deeply rooted commitment to peaceful coexistence.
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in Qadian, a town in Punjab, India. Ahmadis believe that Ghulam Ahmad was the promised Messiah and Mahdi, sent to revive the true spirit of Islam and bring an end to religious violence. Due to this belief, which is seen by mainstream Sunni and Shia scholars as a challenge to the finality of the Prophet Muhammad, Ahmadis are often not recognized as Muslims in many Islamic countries. After facing severe persecution in Pakistan, where they were officially declared non-Muslims in 1974, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community moved its global headquarters to Tilford, Surrey, in the United Kingdom. From this base, under the leadership of their spiritual head, the Khalifa (Caliph), the community operates numerous humanitarian, educational, and interfaith initiatives. Ahmadis are strongly committed to nonviolence and are vocal opponents of terrorism. Their motto, “Love for all, hatred for none,” encapsulates their global mission of peace and service to humanity.
Sufism is not a sect per se, but a spiritual and mystical approach that cuts across Sunni and Shia boundaries. Sufis seek a direct, personal experience of the divine through practices like dhikr (remembrance), poetry, music, and devotion to a spiritual master or sheikh. Sufism emphasizes inner purification, divine love, and unity with God. There is no central headquarters for Sufism, as it is composed of many orders (tariqas), each with its spiritual lineage and centers. However, several cities are deeply associated with Sufi traditions. Konya in Turkey is the resting place of the famous poet and mystic Rumi and a major pilgrimage site. In India, the shrine of Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is one of the most revered Sufi shrines. Baghdad in Iraq and Cairo in Egypt have also been key centers of Sufi learning and practice. Despite their message of love and tolerance, Sufis have often been targeted by extremists, especially Salafi groups, who consider Sufi practices heretical. Nevertheless, Sufism remains a powerful force for peace, spirituality, and interfaith dialogue throughout the Muslim world.
It is essential to clarify that no legitimate Islamic sect—Sunni, Shia, Ibadi, Ahmadiyya, or Sufi—supports terrorism. The core teachings of Islam emphasize justice, mercy, and the sanctity of life. Terrorism, when it occurs in the name of Islam, is perpetrated by extremist groups that operate outside the bounds of mainstream theology. These groups misuse religious texts for political or ideological motives and are widely condemned by religious leaders across all Islamic sects.
International fatwas, interfaith initiatives, and scholarly writings have reaffirmed that violence against innocent civilians is against the principles of Islam. Muslims worldwide—regardless of sect—are among the strongest voices condemning terrorism and advocating for peace.
The Muslim world is diverse and multifaceted, with sects that differ in theology, law, and practice but share a common foundation in faith. Each sect has its unique history, interpretation of scripture, and center of influence—from Al-Azhar in Cairo for Sunnis, to Qom and Najaf for Shias, to Muscat for Ibadis, and Tilford for Ahmadis. Despite these differences, the overwhelming majority of Muslims around the world reject violence and terrorism, advocating instead for peaceful coexistence and mutual understanding. Understanding the diversity within Islam is crucial to dispelling stereotypes and promoting harmony in an increasingly interconnected world